1. Field of the Invention
Embodiments of the present disclosure relate to bone cements and cement injection systems, and in some embodiments provide systems and methods for on-demand control of bone cement viscosity for treating vertebral compression fractures and for preventing cement extravasation.
2. Description of the Related Art
Osteoporotic fractures are prevalent in the elderly, with an annual estimate of 1.5 million fractures in the United States alone. These include 750,000 vertebral compression fractures (VCFs) and 250,000 hip fractures. The annual cost of osteoporotic fractures in the United States has been estimated at $13.8 billion. The prevalence of VCFs in women age 50 and older has been estimated at 26%. The prevalence increases with age, reaching 40% among 80-year-old women. Medical advances aimed at slowing or arresting bone loss from aging have not provided solutions to this problem. Further, the population affected will grow steadily as life expectancy increases. Osteoporosis affects the entire skeleton but most commonly causes fractures in the spine and hip. Spinal or vertebral fractures also cause other serious side effects, with patients suffering from loss of height, deformity and persistent pain which can significantly impair mobility and quality of life. Fracture pain usually lasts 4 to 6 weeks, with intense pain at the fracture site. Chronic pain often occurs when one vertebral level is greatly collapsed or multiple levels are collapsed.
Postmenopausal women are predisposed to fractures, such as in the vertebrae, due to a decrease in bone mineral density that accompanies postmenopausal osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is a pathologic state that literally means “porous bones”. Skeletal bones are made up of a thick cortical shell and a strong inner meshwork, or cancellous bone, of collagen, calcium salts, and other minerals. Cancellous bone is similar to a honeycomb, with blood vessels and bone marrow in the spaces. Osteoporosis describes a condition of decreased bone mass that leads to fragile bones which are at an increased risk for fractures. In an osteoporosis bone, the sponge-like cancellous bone has pores or voids that increase in dimension making the bone very fragile. In young, healthy bone tissue, bone breakdown occurs continually as the result of osteoclast activity, but the breakdown is balanced by new bone formation by osteoblasts. In an elderly patient, bone resorption can surpass bone formation thus resulting in deterioration of bone density. Osteoporosis occurs largely without symptoms until a fracture occurs.
Vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty are recently developed techniques for treating vertebral compression fractures. Percutaneous vertebroplasty was first reported by a French group in 1987 for the treatment of painful hemangiomas. In the 1990's, percutaneous vertebroplasty was extended to indications including osteoporotic vertebral compression fractures, traumatic compression fractures, and painful vertebral metastasis. Vertebroplasty is the percutaneous injection of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) into a fractured vertebral body via a trocar and cannula. The targeted vertebrae are identified under fluoroscopy. A needle is introduced into the vertebrae body under fluoroscopic control, to allow direct visualization. A bilateral transpedicular (through the pedicle of the vertebrae) approach is typical but the procedure can be done unilaterally. The bilateral transpedicular approach allows for more uniform PMMA infill of the vertebra.
In a bilateral approach, approximately 1 to 4 ml of PMMA or more is used on each side of the vertebra. Since the PMMA needs to be forced into the cancellous bone, the techniques require high pressures and fairly low viscosity cement. Since the cortical bone of the targeted vertebra may have a recent fracture, there is the potential of PMMA leakage. The PMMA cement contains radiopaque materials so that when injected under live fluoroscopy, cement localization and leakage can be observed. The visualization of PMMA injection and extravasation are critical to the technique, as the physician generally terminates PMMA injection when leakage is observed. The cement is injected using syringes to allow the physician manual control of injection pressure.
Balloon kyphoplasty is a modification of percutaneous vertebroplasty. Balloon kyphoplasty involves a preliminary step comprising the percutaneous placement of an inflatable balloon tamp in the vertebral body. Inflation of the balloon creates a cavity in the bone prior to cement injection. In balloon kyphoplasty, the PMMA cement can be injected at a lower pressure into the collapsed vertebra since a cavity exists, as compared to conventional vertebroplasty. More recently, other forms of kyphoplasty have been developed in which various tools are used to create a pathway or cavity into which the bone cement is then injected.
The principal indications for any form of vertebroplasty are osteoporotic vertebral collapse with debilitating pain. Radiography and computed tomography must be performed in the days preceding treatment to determine the extent of vertebral collapse, the presence of epidural or foraminal stenosis caused by bone fragment retropulsion, the presence of cortical destruction or fracture, and the visibility and degree of involvement of the pedicles.
Leakage of PMMA during vertebroplasty can result in very serious complications including compression of adjacent structures that necessitate emergency decompressive surgery. See Groen, R. et al., “Anatomical and Pathological Considerations in Percutaneous Vertebroplasty and Kyphoplasty: A Reappraisal of the Vertebral Venous System,” Spine Vol. 29, No. 13, pp 1465-1471, 2004. Leakage or extravasation of PMMA is a critical issue and can be divided into paravertebral leakage, venous infiltration, epidural leakage and intradiscal leakage. The exothermic reaction of PMMA carries potential catastrophic consequences if thermal damage were to extend to the dural sac, cord, and nerve roots. Surgical evacuation of leaked cement in the spinal canal has been reported. It has been found that leakage of PMMA is related to various clinical factors such as the vertebral compression pattern, and the extent of the cortical fracture, bone mineral density, the interval from injury to operation, the amount of PMMA injected and the location of the injector tip. In one recent study, close to 50% of vertebroplasty cases resulted in leakage of PMMA from the vertebral bodies. See Hyun-Woo Do et al., “The Analysis of Polymethylmethacrylate Leakage after Vertebroplasty for Vertebral Body Compression Fractures,” J. of Korean Neurosurg. Soc., Vol. 35, No. 5 (May/2004), pp 478-82, (http://www.jkns.or.kr/htm/abstract.asp?no=0042004086).
Another recent study was directed to the incidence of new VCFs adjacent to the vertebral bodies that were initially treated. Vertebroplasty patients often return with new pain caused by a new vertebral body fracture. Leakage of cement into an adjacent disc space during vertebroplasty increases the risk of a new fracture of adjacent vertebral bodies. See Am. J. Neuroradiol., 2004 February; 25(2):175-80. The study found that 58% of vertebral bodies adjacent to a disc with cement leakage fractured during the follow-up period compared with 12% of vertebral bodies adjacent to a disc without cement leakage.
Another life-threatening complication of vertebroplasty is pulmonary embolism. See Bernhard, J. et al., “Asymptomatic Diffuse Pulmonary Embolism Caused by Acrylic Cement An Unusual Complication of Percutaneous Vertebroplasty,” Ann. Rheum. Dis., 62:85-86, 2003. The vapors from PMMA preparation and injection also are cause for concern. See Kirby, B, et al., “Acute Bronchospasm Due to Exposure to Polymethylmethacrylate Vapors During Percutaneous Vertebroplasty,” Am. J. Roentgenol., 180:543-544, 2003.